University of Phoenix OnlineCollege of Education |
UNIVERSITY OF PHOENIX ONLINE
Course Syllabus
Please print a copy of this syllabus for handy reference
Whenever there is a question about what assignments are due, please remember this syllabus is considered to be the ruling document.
COURSE NUMBER: EDD 503
COURSE TITLE: Teaching Critical Thinking Skills in the Classroom
COURSE HOME PAGE: http://julieadams.biz/EDD503/
COURSE START DATE: 3/10/09
COURSE END DATE: 3/30/09
REQUIRED READING: Students are required to read all materials available at the rEsource site for this course on https://mycampus.uophx.edu. From your homepage, in the box for this course, click on rEsource.
Facilitator Information
Ken RohrerFacilitator Availability
Facilitator Availability
M-F 6:00-10:00 pm -Central
time
Sat. 12:00 noon
- 10:00 pm - Central
time
I am online off and on during these hours. I check my e-mail at least twice a day. If you need immediate assistance, please call me during these hours.
For emergencies when you are not able to gain access to Outlook Express or to messages on the OLS exchange server - Web Access: https://ecampus.phoenix.edu, please send a message to my personal email address.
WHERE TO GO FOR HELP -- CTE TECH SUPPORT & UOPHx LIBRARY
See Course Description in the rEsource materials or module for this course.
Course Objectives
See Course Objectives in the rEsource materials or module for this course.
The Online Weekly Schedule
Electronic weeks begin on Tuesday and end on Monday.
Day 1 – Tuesday
Day 2 – Wednesday
Day 3 – Thursday
Day 4 – Friday
Day 5 – Saturday
Day 6 – Sunday
Day 7 – Monday
Where to Go to Class: Your Course Forums
Main: This is the main forum for the class and is where discussion is conducted. It has read-and-write access for everyone.
Chat-Room: This is a read-and-write access forum. It is designed as a place to discuss issues not related to the course content. This is the forum to which we will send our bios.
Course-Materials: This is a read-only forum, which means you can read messages here but cannot send any. This is where I will post the course syllabus and materials.
Learning-Teams- There are no learning teams in this course.
Individual Forum: You will see one forum with your name on it. This is a private forum, shared only by you and me, the facilitator. Your classmates won't have access to this forum. This is where you will post some of your individual assignments, and where I will post your feedback. You can also ask questions here. However, if you have general questions about instructions of assignments, please post those in the Main forum, since other students may benefit by that exchange as well.
For class policies, please see the “Policies” link on the left side of the classroom. Faculty and student/learners will be held responsible for understanding and adhering to all policies contained within that link. University policies are subject to change so please be sure to read them at the beginning of each class as it may have changed since your last class. Policies may be slightly different depending on the modality in which you attend class. If you have recently changed modalities it is important you read the policies governing your current class modality.
Participation
Participation is very important online. You will be expected to participate 4 days a week in several different discussions and to contribute at least two substantive discussion messages on each of those 4 days. This is a required part of your grade. Participation consists of notes you send above and beyond graded assignments. This generally means the messages you send as replies to messages from your classmates and me.
Please note that both quantity and quality are important considerations when it comes to participation. For example, a message which says simply, "I agree," does not constitute participation, because it does not add anything of substance to the discussion.
In order to earn full participation points, you must add something of substance to the discussion 4 out of 7 days per week—this would consist of new ideas, your perspectives, pointed follow-up questions, etc. You will find it is much easier to keep up with an Online class when you are logging in and participating regularly.
Only posts in the Main classroom forum will count towards your class participation score.
Participation and Discussion Question Grading
Discussion question responses will not count towards the class participation requirement and will be evaluated separately.
Weekly Summaries
Weekly summaries will be required in this course
but not counted as class participation. Weekly summaries will be graded separately. Summaries are to be posted in both the main and individual forums!
Final Week Requirements
Discussion question responses will not be required during the final week of the course. The final week will be dedicated to completing the final assignments listed below.
Expectations for Discussion Question Responses
Discussion question responses should be at least 200-300 words for each question. For discussion question responses in the Main forum, please post responses to the threads provided. To respond, highlight the appropriate thread, click on Reply, type your response, and send. Please do not start a new thread for the weekly discussion questions in the Main forum.
Unlike your formal written assignments, I do not require that your discussion question responses adhere to specific formatting requirements. However, please make sure to proofread carefully. Grammar and spelling errors may impact the grading.
I expect your discussion question responses to reflect critical thought. Whenever possible, please try to relate the course content to real-world applications from your work experience.
Replying to Threads
When replying to posts, please click on the "Quote original" button first and then click on "Post Message" button when sending your post. I read posts by date and not by thread and this saves me time of reorganizing posts just so I can see what you are replying to. (see image below)


*
Note- If you make a mistake, you can delete your post if no one has responded to it. Click on
the "Remove" link on the right side of your post. See the image at left for those who are visually oriented.
Attachments
Please do not use attachments in the Main forum. Post DQ responses and weekly summaries (if required) in the body of OLS messages. Please post formal assignments in your Individual forum as attachments–Microsoft® Word documents or PowerPoint® slides.
Submitting Your Papers to the Plagiarism Checker
Plagiarism has become a problem in schools across the country. UOPX has a Plagiarism Checker that you are all required to use. To access the checker, go to the Center for Writing Excellence and click on the "Submit a Paper" link. At the bottom of that page, check the "Plagiarism Checker" box and then click the "Browse" button. You can then upload your file. When the report is ready, save the "Turnitin" file and submit it to me along with your assignment. The report will let you know how much of your assignment was found online or from other author's work. Make sure all your quotes are cited and they should not take up more than 10% of your paper in most cases.
If you have any questions about any of the information contained in this syllabus, or about any other aspect of this class, please do not hesitate to ask!
Feedback
Each week, I will provide grades or scores and comments on assignments within 6 days of when they were submitted. I will send feedback to your Individual forum. After I send feedback each week, I will post a notification in the Main forum.
Grading Formula
Points |
Grade |
|---|---|
95+ |
A |
90-94 |
A- |
87-89 |
B+ |
84-86 |
B |
80-83 |
B- |
77-79 |
C+ |
74-76 |
C |
70-73 |
C- |
67-69 |
D+ |
64-66 |
D |
60-63 |
D- |
<59 |
F |
Partial points will be rounded to the nearest full point; for example, 83.4=83 leads to a grade of B-; and 83.5=84 leads to a grade of B.
Point Values for Course Assignments
Discussion Assignments |
Points |
|
Individual (100 points) |
||
| Course
Participation |
Weeks 1-3 | 30 |
| Discussion Questions | Weeks 1-2 | 20 |
| Summary/reflections | Weeks 1-3 | 30 |
Written Assignments |
Points |
Individual (100 points) |
|
Gardner's Lesson Plan |
20 |
Two Article Reviews |
20 |
Two Lesson Plans Incorporating Bodily-Kinesthetic, Musical Intelligence, and Gardner |
20 |
Final Project |
40 |
Grand Total |
180 |
The University of Phoenix uses the Gregg Reference Manual as the criteria for grammar usage for all their courses. The UOP Gregg Reference website is located here:
You will all need to buy a copy of the Gregg Reference Manual for all your future courses with UOP. Many professors will give you page numbers from this book when grading your papers. It is impossible to remember everything, so you will refer to it frequently. I refer to it when doing my grading.
You can buy a copy of Gregg's Reference Manual here:
You can also purchase it as an eBook by clicking on the Student Edition link.
You will need to buy an APA manual for your courses at UOP. UOP recommends the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Fifth Edition. However, my favorite is the Prentice Hall Reference Guide (7th Edition) (Prentice Hall Reference Guide to Grammar & Usage)
.
I use this guide when grading papers. It is easier to find what you
need and refer back to it as you write. If this is one of your first
courses with UOP, you will probably want to review APA standards
because it is easy to get rusty on the standards.
Some of you may need to refresh on APA quickly in order to do your assignments correctly. You can go to this website to get the basics of APA standards:
Johnson, Andrew P. (2000). Up
and out:
Using creative and critical thinking skills to enhance learning.
Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. The eBook is available for free
from rEsource and listed on the EDD 503 course map located there.
You can get a little help creating your bibliography by visiting the free website, BibMe.
EDD 503: Teaching Critical Thinking in the Classroom Selected Readings Page at http://www.apollolibrary.com/ERR/ElectronicReserveReadings.aspx
You must be logged into eResource for this link to work.Because this is a CTE course, it is a 5 week course compressed into 3 weeks. Please disable all macros when creating your documents. Macros are one way that viruses are spread. There is no benefit to them in this course anyway.
Recognizing Critical Thinking
Creativity, Intelligence, and Thinking Skills
ASSIGNMENTS1. Read Chapters 1-3 in Up and Out: Using Creative and Critical Thinking Skills to Enhance Learning. If you have trouble accessing it in eResource, you can download the entire textbook here.
2. Read the University of Phoenix Materials "Outside Project" and "Master List of Logical Fallacies."
ONLINE
Due this week:
1. Conduct a literature/Internet search for two articles dealing with critical thinking in the classroom. Write a 350-700-word paper that includes 1-2 paragraphs briefly summarizing the articles. The remainder of the paper should focus on your reflection on the articles' content. Attach copies of the articles to your paper or provide an Internet link to the articles. The Literature/Internet Search on Critical Thinking in the Classroom is due this Saturday by midnight Phoenix time. This is to be submitted as an attachment using Microsoft Word in your individual forum. This paper must follow APA guidelines. (See the course calendar for the exact due date)
Review of two articles Rubric (See Standards for Written Work Rubric in the grades section for detailed criteria)
| APA standards followed All standards met 4 points |
Most standards met 3 points |
Some standards met 2 points |
| Word count met (350-700 words) Paper has the required word count 4 points |
300-349 words 3 points |
250-299 words 2 points |
| Copies of articles submitted or links supplied All required articles included 4 points |
One article included 2 points |
|
| Content Both articles are summarized completely 4 points |
Both articles have a general summary 3 points |
Both articles are not summarized well 2 points |
| Grammar Assignment is free of grammatical errors 4 points Total points= /20 |
Assignment if primarily free of grammatical errors 3 points |
Assignment has several errors 2 points |
2 . Write a lesson plan that incorporates at least one of Howard Gardner's nine intelligences using the Johnson Lesson Plan Format (see image below) found in Up and Out: Using Creative and Critical Thinking Skills to Enhance Learning. The Intelligences Lesson Plan is due this Monday. This is to be submitted as an attachment using Microsoft Word in your individual forum. Make sure you label the intelligence in the lesson. (See the course calendar for the exact due date) APA does not need to be followed, but please have a title page so I can readily see who it is by and the assignment. If you cite references, include a references page.
Gardner's Lesson Plan Rubric (See Standards for Written Work Rubric in the grades section for detailed criteria)
| Grammar and formatting No grammatical errors and title page 5 points |
Few grammatical errors and title page 3 points |
No title page or a number of grammatical errors 2 points |
| Content Lesson is clear and understandable 5 points |
Lesson is either not clear or too simplified 3 points |
Lesson does not read well and is too brief 2 points |
| Johnson Plan Format Johnson template is followed 5 points |
Most of Johnson template is covered 3 points |
|
| Gardner's intelligences At least one of the intelligences is incorporated and labeled 5 points Total points= /20 |
Intelligence(s) not labeled 3 points |
No intelligences covered or labeled 0 point |

4. Submit your Weekly Summary. Your weekly summary is due in the body of your post in the main forum and should be at least 300 words in length.
Due next week:
1 . Write two lesson plans in one paper. One of the lessons incorporates Howard Gardner's
"bodily-kinesthetic" and "musical" intelligences.
Identify at which level of Bloom's Taxonomy the lesson plan is
written. Briefly explain how your lesson will enhance students'
ability to think critically. This lesson plan doesn't have to
follow Johnson's template (see optional lesson plan formats below) This
is to be submitted as an attachment using Microsoft Word in your individual forum.
APA does not need to be followed, but please have a title page for both
lessons so I can readily see who it is by and the assignment. If you
cite references, include a references page.
The second lesson plan uses one of the ideas in the Appendix of Up and Out: Using Creative and Critical Thinking Skills to Enhance Learning. Make sure you label it so I can readily see which idea in the appendix you used. Incorporate one of Howard Gardner's intelligences and identify at which level of Bloom's Taxonomy the lesson is written. Address how you would assess the lesson. Incorporate one of the ideas found in the Appendix. This lesson plan doesn't have to follow Johnson's template. The lesson will be evaluated based on the following criteria:
a. Incorporates one of Gardner's intelligences
b. Incorporates one of the higher levels of Bloom's taxonomy
c. Addresses assessment
d. Includes accurate information
Possible lesson plan templates for your assignments for week 2 and 3 can be found at:
This is to be submitted as an attachment using Microsoft Word in your individual forum. APA does not need to be followed, but please have a title page for both lessons so I can readily see who it is by and the assignment. If you cite references, include a references page.
Discussion Questions
Students should respond to Discussion Questions with 200 - 300 words for each question (600 - 900 words total). Discussion questions are to be submitted all together in one post in the main and individual forums.
1) Which logical fallacy is most interesting to you? Why? (See list on the bottom of this syllabus)
2) Why should educators be aware of how students process information?
3) How would you define critical thinking?
Brief Summary of Week One Deliverables
(Also
see the Course
Calendar)
Assignment |
Individual or Learning Team |
Location |
Due |
Participation |
Individual |
Main |
Ongoing- 4 days per week |
Bio |
Individual |
Chat Room |
Tuesday |
Individual DQ's |
Individual |
Main & Individual |
Friday |
| 2
Articles on Critical Thinking |
Individual |
Individual |
Saturday |
| Gardner
Lesson Plan |
Individual | Individual | Monday |
Weekly
Summary- No attachments! |
Individual |
Main & Individual |
Monday |
Enhancing the Learning Experience
ASSIGNMENTS1. Read Chapters 4-6 in Up and Out: Using Creative and Critical Thinking Skills to Enhance Learning. If you have trouble accessing it in eResource, you can download the entire textbook here.
2. Conduct an Internet search for information on Bloom's Taxonomy. Comment on it as part of your weekly discussion. You can use this information when responding to other posts, or start your own thread. Do not think of this as a separate assignment. Think of it as a means of enhancing the weekly discussions.
ONLINE
Due this week:
1 . Write two lesson plans in one paper. One of the lessons incorporates Howard Gardner's "bodily-kinesthetic" and "musical" intelligences. Identify at which level of Bloom's Taxonomy the lesson plan is written. Briefly explain how your lesson will enhance students' ability to think critically. This lesson plan doesn't have to follow Johnson's template (see optional lesson plan formats below) This is to be submitted using Microsoft Word in your individual forum. APA does not need to be followed, but please have a title page for both lessons so I can readily see who it is by and the assignment. You should double space your explanatory paragraphs. If you cite references, include a references page.(See the course calendar for the exact due date)
The second lesson plan uses one of the ideas in the Appendix on page 139 of Up and Out: Using Creative and Critical Thinking Skills to Enhance Learning. Make sure you label it so I can readily see which idea in the appendix you used. Incorporate one of Howard Gardner's intelligences and identify at which level of Bloom's Taxonomy the lesson is written. Address how you would assess the lesson. Incorporate one of the ideas found in the Appendix. This lesson plan doesn't have to follow Johnson's template. The lesson will be evaluated based on the following criteria:
a. Incorporates one of Gardner's intelligences
b. Incorporates one of the higher levels of Bloom's taxonomy
c. Addresses assessment
d. Includes accurate information
2 Lessons Plans Rubric
| Grammar and formatting (See Standards for Written Work Rubric in the grades section) No grammatical errors and title page 5 points |
Few grammatical errors and title page 3 points |
No title page or a number of grammatical errors 2 points |
| Content Lesson is clear and understandable. Both lessons in one document as required. 5 points |
Lesson is either not clear and too simplified OR lessons are posted separately 3 points |
Lesson does not read well and is too brief 2 points |
| Appendix ideas from page 139 used effectively Appendix idea included and labeled 5 points |
Appendix idea used but not labeled 3 points |
|
| Gardner's intelligences Bodily-kinesthetic and musical intelligences included and labeled. 5 points Total points= /20 |
Intelligence(s) not labeled 3 points |
No intelligences covered or labeled 0 point |
These lesson plans are due on Saturday by midnight Phoenix time and is to be submitted as an attachment using Microsoft Word in your individual forum. Please have a title page with your name and assignment listed.
Possible lesson plan templates for your assignments for week 2 and 3 can be found at:
3. Submit your Weekly Summary. Your weekly summary is due in the body of your post in the main forum and should be at least 300 words in length.
Due next week:
1. Final Project-
Develop a unit of study for the content and/or grade level you teach. Include the following components:
A. Title page- The paper should follow APA guidelines. The lessons themselves don't need to be double-spaced.
B. Rationale for and description of the unit of study
C. Grade level and content area
D. 8 - 10 lesson plans
E. Incorporation of Howard Gardner's eight intelligences
F. Incorporation of Bloom's Taxonomy
G. Assessment plan
H. 350-word essay describing how the unit of study addresses critical thinking in the classroom. This should be included in the same document.
I. Mention which intelligences and level of Bloom's you are using on each lesson. This can go below the lesson number and/or title of lesson.
J. Use the Johnson or Hunter model (or a combination of the two) in your project.
The Final Project should be typed and look professional. The final project is due Sunday by midnight Phoenix time and is to be submitted as an attachment using Microsoft Word in your individual forum.Discussion Questions
Students should respond to Discussion Questions with 200 - 300 words for each question (600 - 900 words total). Discussion questions are to be submitted all together in one post in the main forum and individual forums.1) As teachers, what are some ways we can ensure that the multiple intelligences are incorporated into our instruction? Think beyond writing them into your lesson plans.
2) As you think about your students and the discipline you teach, what one change would you make in your lesson delivery to ensure that students develop and use critical thinking skills?
3) What are some higher-level questions you could ask students at the grade/content area you teach?
Brief Summary of Week Two Deliverables
(Also see the Course Calendar)
Assignment |
Individual or Learning Team |
Location |
Due |
Participation |
Individual |
Main |
Ongoing- 4 days per week |
2 Lesson plans from Up and Out and Gardner |
Individual |
Individual |
Saturday |
Individual DQ's |
Individual |
Main & Individual |
Friday |
Weekly Summary- No attachments! |
Individual |
Main & Individual |
Monday |
Critical Thinking Lesson Plans
ASSIGNMENTS1. Read Chapters 7-9, and 11 in Up and Out: Using Creative and Critical Thinking Skills to Enhance Learning. If you have trouble accessing it in eResource, you can download the entire textbook here.
2. Submit your final project.
Due this week:
1. Final Project-
Develop a unit of study for the content and/or grade level you teach. Include the following components:
A. Title page- The paper should follow APA guidelines. The lessons themselves don't need to be double-spaced.
B. Rationale for and description of the unit of study
C. Grade level and content area
D. 8 - 10 lesson plans
E. Incorporation of Howard Gardner's eight intelligences
F. Incorporation of Bloom's Taxonomy
G. Assessment plan
H. 350-word essay describing how the unit of study addresses critical thinking in the classroom
I. Mention which intelligences and level of Bloom's you are using on each lesson. This can go below the lesson number and/or title of lesson.
The Final Project should be typed and look professional. APA standards must be followed. You may format the actual lessons as you wish, however. The final project is due the Sunday by midnight, Phoenix time, and is to be submitted as an attachment using Microsoft Word in your individual forum.3. Submit your Weekly Summary for this workshop as instructed in the course syllabus provided by your instructor.
Final
SummarySubmit your final summary. This one is in more detail and should summarize the entire three weeks of the course. Your weekly summary is due in the body of your post in the main forum and should be 400 - 600 words in length.
Brief Summary of Week Three Deliverables
(Also see the Course Calendar)
Assignment |
Individual or Learning Team |
Location |
Due |
Participation |
Individual |
Main |
Ongoing- 4 days per week |
| Final
Project |
Individual | Individual | Sunday |
Final Summary- No attachments! |
Individual |
Main & Individual |
Monday |
University of Phoenix Material
Master List of Logical Fallacies
The following is a list of the fallacies that will be discussed in this course.
1. Ad Hominem (Attacking the Person). Attacking the arguer rather than his/her argument. Example: John's objections to capital punishment carry no weight since he himself is a convicted felon.
2. Ad Ignorantium (Appeal to Ignorance). Arguing on the basis of what is known and can be proven. If you can't prove that something is true then it must be false (and vice versa). Example: You can't prove there isn't a Loch Ness Monster so there must be one.
3. Ad Populus (Bandwagon). In this fallacy an argument is presented to appeal to the emotions and biases of the masses. It beckons the listener to jump on the bandwagon. Example: ALPO is America's largest selling dog food. Shouldn't you buy some too?
4. Ad Verecuniam (Appeal to Authority). This fallacy tries to convince the listener by appealing to an expert. Often it is an authority in one field who is speaking out of his/her field. Example: Joe Namath encourages women to buy a specific brand of pantyhose, and he should know!
5. Affirming the Consequent. An invalid form of the conditional argument in which the second premise affirms the antecedent. Example: If he wants to keep the job, then he will work hard. He is working hard; therefore, he wants to keep the job.
6. Amphiboly. A fallacy of language ambiguity, deliberately misusing implications. Example: Three out of four doctors recommend this type of pain relief! The implied assertion here is that "three out of four" means seventy-five percent of all doctors and that "this type of pain relief" refers to a particular pain reliever.
7. Appeal to Emotion. In this fallacy, the arguer uses emotional appeals rather than logical reasons to persuade the listener. The fallacy can appeal to various emotions including pride, pity, fear, hate, vanity, or sympathy. The appeal to sympathy is actually a formal fallacy labeled AD MISERICORDIAM. Generally, the issue is oversimplified to the advantage of the arguer. Example: In 1972, there was a widely printed advertisement by the Foulke Fur Co. The ad was a reaction to the frequent protests against the killing of Alaskan seals for the making of fancy furs. According to the advertisement, clubbing the seals was one of the great conservation stories of our history, a mere exercise in wildlife management, because "Biologists believe a healthier colony is a controlled colony."
8. Argument from Analogy or False Analogy. An unsound form of inductive argument in which an argument is based completely, or relies heavily, on analogy to prove its point. Example: This must be a great car because, like the finest watches in the world, it was made in Switzerland.
9. Begging the Question. An argument in which the conclusion is implied or already assumed in the premise (also said to be a circular argument). A variant form of begging the question is one in which the truth of the premise needs to be proven before the conclusion can be accepted. Example: Of course the Bible is the word of God. Why? Because God says so in the Bible.
10. Black and White Fallacy or Slippery Slope. A line of reasoning in which there is no gray area or middle ground. It states that x, y, z are implicit in Step A. Example: We can't allow students any voice in decision making on campus; if we do, it won't be long before they are in total control.
11. Common Belief. This fallacy is committed when we accept a statement to be true on the evidence that many other people allegedly believe it. One form of this fallacy is call PAST BELIEF. The same error in reasoning is committed except the claim is for belief or support in the past. Example: Of course Nixon was guilty in Watergate. Everybody knows that.
12. Contrary to Fact Hypothesis. This fallacy is committed when we state with an unreasonable degree of certainty the results of an event that might have occurred but did not. Example: If President Carter had gone into Iran with military force on the first day of the hostage crisis, there never would have been a hostage crisis.
13. Denying the Antecedent. An invalid form of the conditional argument in which the second premise denies the antecedent of the first premise and the conclusion denies the consequent. Example: If he wants to keep his job he will work hard. He does not want that job, so he won't work hard.
14. Dicto Simpliciter. This argument begins with a simple, unqualified statement but ends with a conclusion that must be qualified to be accepted. Example: Milk has many vitamins and minerals. It is good for everyone.
15. Inconsistency. A discourse is inconsistent or self-contradicting if it contains, explicitly or implicitly, two assertions that are logically incompatible with each other. Inconsistency can also occur between words and actions. Example: A woman who demands equal rights and represents herself as a feminist is upset when a date expects her to pay half the restaurant bill.
16. Non sequitur. In this fallacy, the premises have no direct relationship to the conclusion. This fallacy appears in political speeches and advertising with great frequency. Example: A waterfall in the background and a beautiful girl in the foreground have nothing to do with the performance of an automobile.
17. Questionable Cause. The fallacy of questionable cause is committed when, on insufficient evidence, we identify a cause for an occurrence that has taken place or a fact that is true. Example: I can't find the checkbook; I am sure that my husband hid it so I couldn't go shopping today.
18. Red Herring. This fallacy introduces an irrelevant issue into a discussion as a diversionary tactic. Example: Many people say that engineers need more practice in wiring, but I would like to remind them how difficult it is to master all the math and drawing skills that an engineer requires.
19. Slanting. Slanting is a form of misrepresentation in which a true statement is made, but made in such a way as to suggest that something is not true or to give a false description through the manipulation of connotation. Example: I can't believe how much money is being poured into the space program (suggesting that "poured" means heedless and unnecessary spending).
20. Straw Man. This fallacy occurs when we misrepresent an opponent's position to make it easier to attack, usually by distorting their views to ridiculous extremes. This can also take the form of attacking only the weak premises in an opposing argument while ignoring the strong ones. Example: Those who favor gun-control legislation just want to take all guns away from responsible citizens and put them into the hands of criminals.
21. Two Wrongs Make a Right. This fallacy is committed when we try to
justify an apparently wrong action by charges of a similar wrong.
The underlying assumption is that if they do it, then we can do it too
and are somehow justified. Example: Supporters of apartheid are often
guilty of this error in reasoning. They point to the United
States' practice of slavery to justify their system.